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Types Of Learning
The array of learned behaviour includes discrimination learning (where a
subject learns to respond to a limited range of sensory characteristics, such as a
particular shade of coloration), habituation (the cessation of responses to repeated
stimulation), concept formation (the process of sorting experiences according to
related features), problem solving, perceptual learning (the effects of past
experience on sensory perceptions), and psychomotor learning (the development of
neuromuscular patterns in response to sensory
signals). Association, conditioning, imitation, insight, and imprinting represent
other types of learning.
Learning theorists from the 17th through the mid-20th century attempted to
develop a scientific proof of certain principles that governed all processes of
learning. Rigorous, “objective” methodology was attempted so that the behaviour
of all organisms could be comprehended under a unified system of laws modeled
on those posited in the physical sciences. By the 1970s, however, flaws and gaps in
these comprehensive theories led many psychologists to conclude that learning
could not be represented by a single universal theory.
The last attempts to integrate all knowledge of psychology into one grand theory
occurred in the 1930s. These were represented in the works of Edwin R.
Guthrie, Clark L. Hull, and Edward C. Tolman. Guthrie reasoned that responses
(not perceptions or mental states) were the central building blocks of learning. Hull
argued that “habit strength,” a result of practiced stimulus-response (S-R) activities
promoted by reward, was the essential aspect of learning, which he viewed as a
gradual process. Tolman portrayed learning as a process that derives from
behaviour. Many of these themes remain vital to contemporary research.
Association is one such theme. Its essence lies in the observation that a
subject perceives something in the environment (sensations) and the result is an
awareness of what is out there (ideas). Associations leading to ideas were said to
include closeness of objects or events in space or time, similarity, frequency,
salience, and attractiveness. Associative learning, the ability of an animal to
connect a previously irrelevant stimulus with a particular response, occurs mainly
through the process of conditioning, in which reinforcement crystallizes new
behaviour patterns. The earliest well-known conditioning experiment was
performed by 19th-century Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, who
conditioned dogs to salivate to the sound of bells.
S-R theories failed to account for many learned phenomena, however, and
seemed overly reductive because they ignored a subject’s inner activities. Tolman
headed another, less “objective” camp that held that associations involved a
stimulus and a subjective sensory impression (S-S).
Another current theme is that of reinforcement, which accounts for the finding that
a subject’s performance will improve when his or her activities are rewarded. The
theoretical mechanisms of such reinforcement are controversial.
Many psychologists discount any universal applicability of association
theory, saying that other considerations are of greater importance to learning.
Gestalt psychologists, for instance, believe that the key learning processes involve
a restructuring of relationships in the environment, not simply an associative
experience with them. Psycholinguists(those who study the psychological aspects
of language ability) argue that language learning involves too many words and
combinations to be satisfactorily explained by association theory. Instead, they
argue that some basic organizing structure underlies language learning, perhaps an
inherited native “grammar.”
Other major issues of contemporary theories of learning include the role of
motivation in performance; the transfer of training between a task already learned
and one yet to be learned; learning stages; and the processes and nature of recall,
forgetting, and information retrieval or memory. Other scientists are exploring
nonquantifiable concepts such as image, cognition, awareness, and volition.
Physiological Basis Of Learning
The mechanisms of learning and remembering seem to depend on relatively
enduring changes in the nervous system. Apparently the effects of learning are first
retained in the brain by some reversible process, after which a more permanent
neural change takes place. Two types of neurological processes have therefore
been suggested. The short-term function of memory, temporary and reversible,
may be achieved through a physiological mechanism (e.g., synaptic electrical or
chemical change) that keeps the memory trace alive over a limited period of time.
The ensuing, more permanent (long-term) storage may depend on changes in the
physical or chemical structure of neurons; synaptic changes seem to be particularly
important. New studies using positron emission tomography(PET) and magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) scans may illuminate the physiological basis of learning.
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