ВАРИАНТ I.

 КОНТРОЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА

Темы: временные формы глаголов; активный и пассивный залог; модальные глаголы; причастия и причастные обороты; инфинитив и инфинитивные обороты.

ЗАДАНИЕ 1. а) Переведите предложения на русский язык:

 1.I must take my examination tomorrow.

2.I was able to study English last year, I can’t do it now.

3.He has to go there by Metro.

4.May I open the window?

 

  б) Переведите предложения на английский язык:

 1.Мне приходится вставать рано утром, т.к. я живу далеко от института.

2.Я смогу перевести этот текст на следующей неделе.

3.Могу я войти?

ЗАДАНИЕ 2. Определите залог и время сказуемого. Укажите их в скобках в конце каждого предложения.

  а) Переведите предложения на русский язык:

 1.I have never been spoken to in such a way.

2.Where did you go yesterday?

3.These words must be paid attention to.

4.I have never been to London.

5.Where are you going? — I am going to the library.

6.I will be told when the train starts.

7.She likes music very much.

 

  б) Переведите предложения на английский язык:

 1.Ты придёшь ко мне завтра в шесть?

2.После того, как работа будет сделана, мы сможем пойти домой.

3.Общежитие построено рядом с институтом.

4.Они переведут текст прежде, чем я приду.

5.Она читала эту книгу вчера с трёх до семи вечера.

ЗАДАНИЕ 3. а) Переведите предложения на русский язык и укажите функции инфинитива:

 1.To provide big cities with dairy products farmers must have good fodder for cows.

2.Here are the machines to work on our farm.

3.This room is too small to have lectures there.

4.The work to be done is very difficult.

5.The new school to be built in the village will be good.

  б) Переведите предложения на русский язык, помня об инфинитивных оборотах:

 1.The teacher made them to listen to the text.

2.New uses of plants are expected to be discovered.

3.They think cultivation of plants to be closely connected with the human progress.

4.Vegetables are said to grow well under such conditions.

ЗАДАНИЕ 4. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на причастия и независимый причастный оборот.

  а) на английский язык:

 1.Хорошо зная английский язык, вы сможете читать книги в оригинале.

2.Нам нужны книги, содержащие полезную информацию.

3.Использовав новый метод исследований, учёные сделали важное открытие.

 

  б) на русский язык:

 1.Many crops are grown on the farm, wheat is the most important.

2.The weather being fine tomorrow, we shall go to the country.

3.Reading the letter, I listened to the radio.

ВАРИАНТ II.

КОНРОЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА

Темы: временные формы глагоглов; активный и пассивный залог; модальные глаголы; причастия и причастные обороты; инфинитив и инфинитивные обороты.

ЗАДАНИЕ 1. а) Переведите предложения на русский язык:

 

1.Must we learn this dialogue by heart? — No, you needn’t, read it several times.

2.You can’t speak French, can you?

3.You may take these magazines.

4.On what day are you to leave us?

 

  б) Переведите предложения на английский язык:

 1.Можно мне уйти сейчас? — Нет, нельзя.

2.Вчера я пришёл домой поздно, и мы не смогли никуда пойти.

3.Я должен работать усердно.

 

ЗАДАНИЕ 2. Определите залог и время сказуемого. Укажите их в скобках в конце каждого предложения.

  а) Переведите предложения на русский язык:

 1.This book will be soon republished.

2.We’ll meet them at the station if they come in time.

3.I was interrupted by John.

4.When you rang me up I was having dinner.

5.Don’t tell my husband I’m being painted.

6.Why did you have to fly to Moscow?

7.Mr.Wilson hasn’t bought a new flat yet.

 

  б) Переведите предложения на английский язык:

 1.Его давно не видели здесь.

2.Обычно я встаю в 7 часов утра, а моя мама встаёт в пол-седьмого.

3.Об этой книге много говорят.

4.Кто поёт в соседней комнате?

5.Она такая красивая. На неё всегда обращают внимание.

ЗАДАНИЕ 3. а) Переведите предложения на русский язык и укажите функции инфинитива:

 1.To know foreign languages is very important.

2.In order to know this process we must study it.

3.He spoke about the new school to be built on this farm.

4.Our aim is to become good specialists.

5.The new method to be used in cattle breeding was discussed at the conference.

  

  б) Переведите предложения на русский язык, помня об инфинитивных оборотах:

 1.The scientists are said to have improved soil fertility.

2.Three months will be required for them to finish their work.

3.Their group is known to work on a big farm.

4.I know these fertilizers to be applied regularly.

ЗАДАНИЕ 4. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на причастия и независимый причастный оборот.

  а) на английский язык:

 1.Переводя статью, я пользовался словарём.

2.Когда его спросили о его жизни, он рассказал много интересного.

3.Работая осенью в деревне, студенты помогли колхозникам собрать урожай.

 

  б) на русский язык:

1.A new irrigation system having been built, some water problems were solved.

2.When opening the window he saw that it was raining.

3.While working in the library the student got much interesting information.

ВАРИАНТ III.

 КОНТРОЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА

 Темы: временные формы глаголов; активный и пассивный залог; модальные глаголы; причастия и причастные обороты; инфинитив и инфинитивные обороты.

ЗАДАНИЕ 1. а) Переведите предложения на русский язык:

 

1.If you make many mistakes, you’ll have to rewrite the exercise.

2.You may always take my book.

3.She must return the dictionary to the library.

4.Shall I open the window?

 

  б) Переведите предложения на английский язык:

 1.Они должны быть дома сейчас.

2.Он может легко сделать это сейчас.

3.Пять лет назад она могла свободно говорить по-английски.

 

 ЗАДАНИЕ 2. Определите залог и время сказуемого. Укажите их в скобках в конце каждого предложения.

  а) Переведите предложения на русский язык:

 1.Have you learnt the new words?

2.This film is much talked about.

3.Sometimes he watches TV in the evening.

4.He didn’t know why her name had been crossed out.

5.Why are you smiling? — I’m reading a very funny story.

6.When do you think she will come?

7.When I called on Tom he was playing the piano.

 

  б) Переведите предложения на английский язык:

 1.Ты когда-нибудь был в Ленинграде?

2.Его лекцию будут слушать с большим вниманием.

3.Пока мы работали Том разговаривал по телефону.

4.Когда я вошёл, план работы всё ещё обсуждали.

5.С кем ты обычно ходишь в кино?

 

ЗАДАНИЕ 3. а) Переведите предложения на русский язык и укажите функции инфинитива:

 1.It is difficult to translate this text.

2.To know these processes we must study them.

3.These are the students to help the farmers in summer.

4.Our aim is to improve soil fertility.

5.To solve this problem now is very important both for industry and for agriculture.

  б) Переведите предложения на русский язык, помня об инфинитивных оборотах:

 1.My sister is believed to work too much.

2.For this plant disease to be prevented special chemicals should be supplied.

3.New uses of plants are expected to be discovered.

4.They heard the farmers speak about the new crop to be grown on their fields.

ЗАДАНИЕ 4. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на причастия и независимый причастный оборот.

  а) на английский язык:

 

1.Прочитав газету, он положил её на стол.

2.Молодой человек, стоящий у окна, мой лучший друг.

3.Они не знали друг друга, прожив вместе много лет в одном доме.

 

  б) на русский язык:

 1. Fertilizers being used, soil fertility is improved.

2. When speaking about the new project the lecturer showed the map.

3. Having opened the window he left the room.

 

 ВАРИАНТ IV.

 КОНТРОЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА

Темы: временные формы глаголов; активный и пассивный залог; модальные глаголы; причастия и причастные обороты; инфинитив и инфинитивные обороты.

ЗАДАНИЕ 1. а) Переведите предложения на русский язык:

 1.She says she must write this work in time.

2.Where can I get this book in original?

3.He could learn this poem by heart.

4.I’ll be able to translate the article only in a week.

 

  б) Переведите предложения на английский язык:

 

1.Я смогу навестить его на следующей неделе.

2.Мы должны закончить перевод этой статьи к январю

3.Возможно он поедет в Киев поездом.

 

ЗАДАНИЕ 2. Определите залог и время сказуемого. Укажите их в скобках в конце каждого предложения.

  а)Переведите предложения на русский язык:

 1.She was shown the shortest way to the station.

2.Will you give me this book if I need it?

3.He will be given a new flat in this house.

4.What has happened to you?

5.This article is much spoken about.

6.What were you doing at 4 o’clock yesterday?

7.Yesterday they had dinner at 3, didn’t they?

 

  б) Переведите предложения на английский язык:

 1.План работы был уже обсужден вчера.

2.В прошлом году они внесли удобрения в почву.

3.Мы получили письмо от Анны. Она пишет, что она поступила в Унивеситет

4.Мы поедем завтра каться на коньках?

5.Ей расскажут об этом случае.

ЗАДАНИЕ 3. а) Переведите предложения на русский язык и укажите функции инфинитива:

 

1.It is very important to finish the work today.

2.This text is too difficult to translate it without a dictionary.

3.The work to be done is very important for us.

4.In order to increase its production the plant must have better equipment.

5.This area is big enough to cultivate different kinds of vegetables on it.

 б) Переведите предложения на русский язык, помня об инфинитивных оборотах:

 

1.This soil is found to have much moisture.

2.She is believed to work too much.

3.The agronomist wants this crop to be sown earlier this spring.

4.The teacher made them listened to the text.

 

ЗАДАНИЕ 4. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на причастия и независимый причастный оборот.

  а) на английский язык:

 

1.Открывая окно, он увидел, что идёт дождь.

2.Книги, которыми пользуются студенты, находятся в библиотеке.

3.Построив электростанцию, колхоз начал строить школу.

 

  б) на русский язык:

 

1.While going home he thought of his old friends.

2.Growing plants need water.

3.Living in France, he improved his French.

ВАРИАНТ V.

КОНТРОЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА

Темы: временные формы глаголов; активный и пассивный залог; модальные глаголы; причастия и причастные обороты; инфинитив и инфинитивные обороты.

ЗАДАНИЕ 1. а) Переведите предложения на русский язык:

 

1.I have to read this article.

2.I can’t do it now. I’ll be able to do it next week.

3.I must get up early in the morning.

4.He is to leave today.

 

  б) Переведите предложения на английский язык:

 

1.Куда Вам придется поехать завтра?- Я думаю, никуда.

2.Сегодня мы можем встретиться в 5 часов.

3.Она не могла зайти ко мне утром, т.к. была занята.

ЗАДАНИЕ 2. Определите залог и время сказуемого. Укажите их в скобках в конце каждого предложения.

  а) Переведите предложения на русский язык:

 

1.Sometimes the weather in England changes very quickly.

2.This article is often reffered to.

3.What are you doing here? — I’m waiting for my friend.

4.He has not been seen for a long time.

5.I have already done my work.

6.They spent their holidays in the mountains when they were students.

7.When you rang me up I was having dinner.

 

  б) Переведите предложения на английский язык:

 1. Они будут слушать музыку с 7 до 8 завтра.

2. О нём много писали в газетах.

3. Когда она пришла домой? — Она пришла в восемь.

4. Присоединяйтесь в нам. Мы обсуждаем новый фильм.

5. План обсудили два дня назад.

ЗАДАНИЕ 3. а) Переведите предложения на русский язык и укажите функции инфинитива:

 

1.This soil is too bad to produce high yields.

2.The power station to be built on the bank of the river will supply our farm with electric

power.

3.This text is easy enough to translate it without a dictionary.

4.To provide big cities with dairy products is very important.

5.In order to get high yields we must irrigate the soil.

 

б ) Переведите предложения на русский язык, помня об инфинитивных оборотах:

 

1.This collective farm is known to produce high yields.

2.We expect every student to know the difference between these species.

3.Wolves are said to live in this forest.

4.I think you to help the farmers well.

ЗАДАНИЕ 4. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на причастия и независимый причастный оборот.

  а) на английский язык:

 1.Открыв дверь,он увидел, что идёт снег.

2.Нам нужны люди, хорошо знающие английский язык.

3.Используя прогрессивные методы, ученный получил хорошие результаты.

 

  б) на русский язык:

 

1.Plants growing on the fields must be fertilized.

2.Having lived in England for 5 years, he knew a lot of interesting about its culture.

3.While going home he sang a song.

 

РАБОТА НАД ТЕКСТОМ

1. Перепишите следующие тексты, переведите на русский язык;

2. Подчеркните в каждом предложении текста глагол-сказуемое, пронумеруйте каждый глагол-сказуемое и определите его видовременную форму и залог

3. . Выписать не менее 20 слов терминов с транскрипцией и переводом (в таблицу)

слово	транскрипция	перевод
seed	Si:d	семя

 

Направления: Агрономия, агрохимия и агропочвоведение, лесное дело

ВАРИАНТ I.

Crop Rotation

  Erosion Losses are reduced. In many areas of the United States, the greatest single threat to continued high productivity and profitable yields is soil erosion. In regions of high rainfall and on sloping land, water erosion is the most serious problem; and in areas of limited rainfall wind erosion is most destructive.

The soil being subject to erosion by wind or water, the amount of nutrients removed in cropping is often small compared to that lost by erosion.

  Soils which have been depleted of their supply of available nutrients as a result of cropping can be restored to productivity by applying barnyard manure and commercial fertilizer or by plowing under green crops. However, erosion removes not only the nutrients but the soil itself; and unless checked in time, it may gradually render the land useless for general farming. Sod-forming grasses and legumes are highly effective in reducing soil and nutrient losses by erosion. Conversely, soil losses are likely to be excessive, provided cultivated crops are grown on soils that are subject to erosion. Rotations including small-seeded grasses and legumes make it possible to protect credible soils. Thus, the losses from soil erosion are considerably reduced when compared with open or unprotected land.

  Barnyard Manure and Commercial Fertilizer are More Effectively Utilized. When rotations are properly planned, there is an opportunity to apply barnyard manure, lime, and commercial fertilizer to crops that respond best to such treatments or to those which return the greatest cash value per acre. For example, in a rotation that includes corn, oats and clover, the largest cash return is generally obtained by applying the barnyard manure or commercial fertilizer to the corn.

 

Crop Rotation

  Most weeds can be effectively and economically controlled by crop rotation. Rotations including a cultivated crop, a small grain or a sod crop will usually check or control all but a few of the most aggressive weeds such as quack grass, field bindweed, leafy spurge and the wild morning glory. When a rotation of this type is used, several opportunities are provided for controlling weeds. Many can be destroyed or reduced considerably during the normal tillage operations required for growing the cultivated crop. Others are destroyed as a result of competition provided by the rapidly-growing small grain. Still others are effectively controlled or even completely eliminated by frequent cutting of the hay and as a result of the competition provided by a good growth of forage. In this respect, alfalfa is higly effective because of its recovering rapidly after each cutting and producing a heavy growth that tends to crowd out the weeds. Crop rotation can be used to advantage to reduce losses caused by a number of insects and diseases. Some insects and diseases attack only one type of a plant or a group of closely related plant types. With continuous cropping, these pests live from year to year in the soil and on plant refuse. Eventually they may increase in numbers to a point where production of the crop is no longer profitable.

  However, when crops that are resistant to these disease and insects are grown at regular intervals in a rotation, damage to the susceptible crops is often reduced considerably. This is due to the fact that diseases or insects that are dependent upon a single crop or a limited number of crops for their food supply cannot survive during periods when resistant types are being grown.

ВАРИАНТ 2.

 

Weeds

  A weed can be defined as a plant that grows where it is not wanted.

  Weeds do much damage to crops. When we consider losses from weeds for all of the crops, including pastures, plus damage by insects and diseases harboured by weeds, plus the lower quality of milk and its products and grain and wool because of weeds, the figures run into unbelievable millions. And this is not all of the loss. The extra labour required to keep weeds under control is probably the greatest loss they cause. A large proportion of the labour of producing crops is spent in destroying weeds.

  We cannot list here all of the causes, of the great losses from weeds, but we shall list a few of them: 1. Weeds rob other plants of water in the soil. 2. They rob other plants of food materials. 3. Weeds often shade and smother small cultivated plants because they grow faster. 4. They harbour plant diseases. 5. They harbour insects and injurious worms. 6. They cause lower quality of grains and wool. This is due to weed seeds in grain, and to burs in wool. 7. Some kinds of weeds poison livestock and people. 8. Weeds cause bad flavours in milk, butter and cheese. 9. They cause’ hay fever and other diseases which some people get from breathing the pollen from weeds.

  Weeds spread because they are more hardy than cultivated plants, because they have so many seeds, and because the seeds have so many ways of being scattered. Weeds grow faster than most cultivated plants and are more difficult to kill. Weed seeds live a long time. The seeds of some weeds buried in the soil may live fifteen to thirty-five years. There is a popular expression: one year of seed gives seven years of weeds.

 

Small Grains

  The small grains include wheat, oats, barley, rye, and rice. These plants furnish a very large part of man’s food. They are members of the grass family, and all are annuals or winter annuals.

  The small grains are used for many purposes. The most important uses are as human food, feed for animals, and beverage production.

  As human food. Wheat is the most important food plant. Wheat is used for food in the form of bread, biscuits, pastries, macaroni, crackers, and the like. Practically all of the oats used as human food are in the form of rolled oats. Barley is used to a lesser extent as human food. Most of the rye consumed is in the form of bread. As feed for animals. All the small grains are used to some extent as feed for animals. Oats are universally recognized as a good feed for horses, and nearly all the oats, except those used for seed and the small amount for rolled oats, is fed to livestock. Most of the barley is fed to livestock, and by-products of wheat and rice are used in feeding animals.

  Wheat is cultivated throughout the world. Districts of heavy rainfall are not suitable for wheat, and the yield is very dependent on summer sunshine. Wheat is extremely deep-rooted and drought-resistant, and on all soils, except very light ones, gives the best yields in dry and sunny seasons; it is more resistant to winter frost than either barley or oats. It is the safest cereal to grow on really rich land, as it stands heavy manuring, and is not very liable to lodge.

  Rye is the most winter-hardy of the small grains, practically all rye being fall sown.

 

ВАРИАНТ 3.

 Vegetable Growing Structures

  Many vegetables are started under protection, there being a number of advantages in using this method.

  1) It increases the length of the growing season, many crops being started under cover before it is possible to grow them outside. Where the seasons are especially short this is the only means of maturing such tender long-season crops as tomatoes, peppers, eggplants, and melons. Provided the crops bear continuously, it is obvious that the early started plants may produce larger yields due to extending the length of the growing season. 2) By starting the plants under cover earlier than it is possible to start them outside, the vegetables can frequently be matured at an earlier date. 3) By growing the crops under cover for a portion of their growing season they may require less time to mature in the field. This enables the grower to grow more crops on the same land during the same season.

  Various equipment is used for protecting early grown plants. Greenhouses provide the best facilities for growing early vegetables, since the temperature may be more easily controlled by better ventilating facilities. The workmen can do a much better job and they do not have to stoop down and lean over, nor will there be any danger of exposing the plants to cold temperatures, when they are watered. Hotbeds are artificially heated whereas cold frames have no other source of heat but natural or solar heat. Hotbeds are usually covered with a glass sash as glass admits a maximum of light and has some other advantages.

  Cloth and some similar materials have been substituted for glass in making the cover but have proved to be less satisfactory and are but seldom used.

 

Vegetable Growing Structures

  There are several kinds of hotbeds and several methods of heating them.

  The pit hotbed is one which is placed in an excavation. The frame if made of wood is usually supported on posts so that the north side is from 12 to 18 inches above the ground. This provides a slope to the south so that the water will drain away from the structure. Obviously, most of the hotbed being underneath the surface of the soil, less heat is required. Ten or 12 inches of fresh horse manure are found to be adequate for heating pit hotbeds, whereas from 16 to 18 inches are usually required for surface beds.

  The frame of hotbeds may be made from lumber. Sometimes a more permanent material such as concrete or brick or a combination of the two is substituted for lumber in making the frame. Whatever material is used it is essential that the corners be squared accurately and the upper surface of the frame be perfectly level and on the same plane. Otherwise the sash will not make a perfect fit, and it will be difficult to prevent the penetrating of cold air during excessively cold weather. There are various types of heating hotbeds: manure heating, steam heating, hot water heating and electrical heating. Which method to follow is determined by a number of factors.

  Cold frames are forcing structures that differ from hotbeds in that they are not provided with any form of artificial heat. The heat used comes from the visible rays of the sun, which pass through the covers and which are changed to longer heat rays when striking the soil or other dark objects within the bed.

 

ВАРИАНТ 4.

 Cabbage

  Cabbage (Brassica oberacea) is normally a biennial and is one of the most important vegetables. It is grown, because of its head, large leaf bud.

  Cabbage varieties are divided into three types according to shape: the pointed-, the round-, and the flat-headed types. The roots are usually small but rather uniform in size throughout their length. They penetrate to a depth of 30 inches but most of the root system occurs in the upper 12 inches of the soil, with much of it running horizontally within 2-3 inches of the surface.

  As to the size of head, it varies with the climate, variety, spacing, moisture supply and date of harvest, the average size being usually about 2-4 pounds for early and late cabbage respectively.

  A common method of growing cabbage is to sow the seed in a greenhouse or hotbeds in seed boxes 4-6 weeks before outdoor planting. As soon as the true leaves appear or about 2 weeks after sowing, the seedlings are to be pricked out to other flats or transplanted to hotbeds directly in the seedbed from 1 to 1 1/2 inches apart each way. Sometimes the seed is sown thinly in rows 2-6 inches apart in hotbeds and the seedlings are transplanted to other hotbeds or cold frames to be later transplanted in the field.

  It is necessary that the seedlings to be transplanted to the field should be hardened. By hardening plants is meant making them more frost resistant, better able to resist desiccation from hot drying winds and the sun and less subject to injury from wind whipping. It is accomplished by the seedlings being gradually subjected to lower temperatures, by watering sparingly for 7-10 days before setting in the field or by a combination of those two methods.

 

Cabbage

  The vigorous growth habit makes cabbage a heavy feeder. Large, well-developed leaves are important in order to form a good head, and a ready supply of nitrogen is necessary; however, excessive nitrogen feeding without suitable balance of other elements may result in spongy instead of crisp, firm head. For the early crops a side dressing of readily available nitrogen, after the plants are half grown, is often beneficial in increasing size of head. In general, whenever nitrogen becomes a limiting element as manifested by yellow lower foliage and stunted plants, it is necessary that application of nitrogenous fertilizers should be made.

  Muck soils being usually deficient in potash, the application of a fertilizer containing this element results in increased yields.

  Varieties being grown for storage usually respond particularly well to phosphorus applied when the soil is being prepared for planting.

  Quite often, manure plus superphosphate will give better results than those provided by manure alone. There is some evidence that cabbage takes up several times as much sulphur as phosphorus from the soil. In certain areas therefore, applications of sulphur may prove to be beneficial. When applying fertilizers before planting, one should keep in mind that it must not be placed in direct contact with the roots.

  For cultivation to be applied ample space should be allowed between plants at planting time.

  With the roots of cabbage plants forming near the surface of the soil, care should be taken to avoid their destruction. The cultivation should be shallow and only frequent enough for good control of weeds to be secured. Deep cultivation is likely to injure the roots and reduce the yield.

  

ВАРИАНТ 5.

 Vegetables and their Food Value

  A vegetable is an edible herbaceous plant or part thereof that is commonly used for human food. It is obvious that edible portions of vegetables may be the fruits, buds, foliage, stems, tubers, roots or various other parts of the plants. At present over a thousand species of herbaceous plants are used for human food and are properly classed as vegetables. The phenomenal growth of the vegetable industry is due, in a large measure, to the recognized food value of vegetables, they being our most important sources of vitamins and minerals. Vegetables are also known to be excellent sources of carbohydrates and proteins. Their liberal use in the dietary is likely to result in better health and longer life. Vegetables are our most important natural sources of vitamins A and C and they rank high as sources of vitamins B and B₂. The vitamin content of some vegetables has been found to be as high as that of fruit or even higher. For instance, tomatoes contain over two thirds as much vitamin C as oranges. It has been found that pro-vitamin A is concentrated largely in the thin leafy portions of vegetables, not petioles or roots. However, yellow roots, as carrots, have proved to be rich in pro-vitamin A. Most vegetables present good sources of vitamins B and B₂. Vitamin C is abundant in peppers, in leafy vegetables, and in the storage organs. Some vegetables, such as tomatoes, green peas, potatoes, spinach and others are good sources of niacin (nicotinic acid).

  The vitamin content of different varieties of vegetables differs greatly, there being high- and low-vitamin varieties or strains. The vitamin content of vegetables is affected by different soil fertility levels.

 

Red Clover

  Red clover is the most widely grown as well as the most important of the true clovers. It may be grown alone, in combination with grasses such as timothy, or in mixtures that include grasses and other legumes. Actually, most of the red clover to be used for hay or pasturage is grown with timothy.

  Red clover belongs to the genus «Trifolium pratense» of the legume family. In use on farms, two general types are recognized, namely, medium and mammoth. The former is commonly called «two-cut» in European literature. It is early maturing and, under favorable conditions, produces two hay crops in the harvest year, i. e. in the year after seeding. The mammoth type is commonly called «one-cut». It is about two weeks later in blooming than medium and normally produces only one hay crop. Mammoth red clover is taller and has larger and coarser stems than medium. For this reason, it is not as well liked by livestock men as medium.

  Almost all the red clover in the United States is the medium type. Mammoth is used in the northern part of the northern States and in Canada where due to the short growing season, the bulk of the production is made in the first crop.

  Numerous leafy stems are produced from a crown. These reach a height of 1 foot to 2 feet, depending on the rainfall and the soil. Usually, the taller plants do not stand erect, so that the crop seldom appears to be more than 18 inches high.

The flowers are borne in dense heads, which often contain one hundred or more individual flowers. The leaves are numerous, and many of them have very frequently, if not always, a whitish mark in the centre.

 

направление: зоотехния, ветеринария, всэ

ВАРИАНТ 1.

 BONE

Bone forms the framework upon which the rest of the body is built. The collection of the body is generally referred to as the «skeleton», but this term also includes the cartilages which join the ribs to the breast-bone or sternum, form the larynx, etc.

Structure of Bone. Bone is composed partly of fibrous tissue, partly of bone-earth, mixed together. Two kinds of bone are considered: dense bone, such as forms the shafts of the long bones of the limbs, and cancellous or spongy bone, such as is found in the short bones and at the end of the long bones. Dense bone is found in a tube-like form, with a central cavity in which normally yellow marrow is found, composed mainly of fatty substances; the walls of the tube are stout and strong, and the outer surface is covered by «bone membrane» or periosteum. Cancellous bone has a more open framework, is irregular in shape, and, instead of possessing a cavity, its centre is divided into innumerable tiny spaces by a fine network of bony threads, which support the important red marrow. This red marrow is the tissue of the body that is engaged in the formation of red blood-cells. Periosteum also covers the outer surfaces of the short ones. All bone is penetrated by a series of very fine canals, in which run blood-vessels, nerves, lymph vessels, etc., for the growth, maintenance, and repair of the bone. Around these Haversian canals the bone is arranged in circular plates or scales which are called lamellae, the lamellae are separated from each other by spaces or «lacunae», each of which contains a single bone-cell. Even the lamellae consist of fine tubes known as «canaliculi» carrying processes of the bone-cells. Each lamella is composed of very fine interlacing fibres.

Growth of Bone. Bones grow in thickness from the periosteum surrounding them, the inner surface of which is constantly transformed into hard bone while the long bones grow in length from a plate of cartilage which runs across the bone at a short distance from each of its ends, and which on one surface is also constantly forming bone until the growth of the animal ceases.

 

BRAIN

 The brain and the spinal cord together form what is called the central nervous system. The twelve pairs of cranial nerves and the many pairs that leave the spinal column, together with the complicated network of nerve-fibres originating from or associated with the ganglia in the chest and abdomen, form the peripheral nervous system. This latter is composed of two kinds of nerves: a) cranial and spinal, and b) sympathetic nerves. These are all closely connected with each other, but their functions differ. The cranial and spinal nerves are concerned in the transmission of messages to and from the brain, generally either messages of sensation (by sensory nerves), or orders of movement to the muscular system (motor nerves). Sympathetic nerves govern the activities of the abdominal and thoracic organs chiefly.

Divisions. The brain in its simplest form in lowly vertebrate animals is a thickened part at the front end of the spinal cord, developed to govern the organs of special sense, viz. smell, hearing, and taste. In fishes for example, there are marked bulgings of nervous matter forming the fore-, mid-, and hind-brain, and that part connected with nerves of sight is the most highly developed. In higher animals the fore-brain is the most specialised. This fore-brain is in the form of two hemispheres, connected with each other by a white, fairly dense mass, called the «corpus callosum», and connected with the rest of the brain by the «cerebral peduncles», elongations of the midbrain. The hemispheres of the fore-brain are known as the «cerebral hemispheres»; the mid-brain is formed by the peduncles chiefly; and the hind-brain is composed of the cerebellum, pons, and medulla.

Cerebrum, or cerebral hemispheres, occupies the anterior part of the bony brain cavity. The two hemispheres are separated from each other by a deep cleft, the «median longitudinal fissure», which has in its deeper part the corpus callosum, and are divided from the posterior part of the brain by the «transverse fissure».

 

ВАРИАНТ 2.

 BRAIN

Structure. The brain is composed of white and grey matter. The grey matter consists of cells, in which all the activities of the brain commence, and variously arranged nerve-fibres. The cells vary in size and shape in different parts of the brain, but all of them give off a number of processes, some of which form nerve-fibres.

The white matter is made up of a large number of nerve-fibres, each of which is connected to a cell in the grey matter, arranged in various «paths». The chief of these paths are either efferent, afferent, or associative.

Functions. The Cerebrum.—In the first place the cerebrum is non-sensitive: it can be handled, cut or injured without any signs of pain in the subject. The cerebrum is concerned with the higher senses, such as memory, initiative, volition and intelligence. In addition to this the movements of the skeletal muscles that are not purely reflex are controlled in various areas of the surface of the cerebral hemispheres. It has been established that the main functions of this part are to coordinate muscular movement, to preserve the body balance, and, by assistance from the visual centres, to govern direction. Each half of the cerebellum controls the muscular system of its own side of the body, and is in communication with the opposite side of the cerebrum.

The Medulla. The functions of those parts that lie I below the cerebellum and behind the cerebral hemispheres J are very complex. In the first place, it is through the medulla that communication between the brain and the rest of I the body takes place. There are areas composed of outgoing fibres, and other areas composed of incoming fibres. It is the central controlling station of such vital functions as heart action, respiration, circulation, the action of the whole digestive system; it gives rise to all the cranial nerves except three, viz. those of smell, vision, and of the muscles of the eyeball; and it possesses the centres that control mastication, swallowing, sucking, vomiting, voice-production, coughing, the calibre of the arteries, movements of the iris, the secretion of saliva and sweat, the amount of sugar in the urine, and the act of shivering.

 

A LITTLE ABOUT VIRUSES

Development of Virology. In 1892 the Russian scientist D.I. Ivanovsky published an article on the reproduction of tobacco mosaic disease with the help of an unicellular extract. Since that time virology began to develop.

In 1911 P. Rous discovered that sarcoma of the fowl could be transmitted by an agent separable from the tumour cells. It was the second large stage in the history of virology.

Genuine revolution in virology was connected with the introduction of monolayer cell culture method for cultivation of viruses. With the help of this hundreds of unknown viruses were isolated and identified.

In our days virology took a new incentive owing to impetuous development of biochemistry, biophysics and other fundamental sciences.

In its turn virology gave some original methods for immunology, microbiology and some other sciences.

Classification. There is no really scientific classification of viruses up to date. We do not know about origin and evolution of viruses well enough, but every scientific classification is based on evolutionary principles.

There are some cardinal properties which differ viruses from other organisms and prove that they are not substances but living units: 1) presence of only one of two nucleic acids in the compound of virus, 2) absence of autonomous metabolism and its connection with cell-master’s metabolism, 3) absence of cellular structures, 4) disjunctive mode of reproduction.

This mode consists of separable synthesis of viral components in a cell with subsequent connection of them into the whole viral particle – virion.

So far as viruses differ from animals and plants, they are isolated into the independent kingdom – Vira (Viruses).

 

ВАРИАНТ 3.

VIRUSES AND MALIGNANT DISEASES IN ANIMALS AND POULTRY

The most urgent problem which is of great interest both for physicians and veterinary doctors is the problem of studying oncogenic viruses, the causative agents of cancer in animals.

Viruses which cause leukemia and sarcoma in poultry have been isolated long ago.

H. Ellermann and T. Bang (1908) isolated the virus in avian leukosis and P. Rous (1911) discovered the causative agent in avian sarcoma.

Unfortunately, nobody paid attention to those findings for a long time.

In the thirtieth of the XX century the above mentioned agents were used by medical scientists as models for investigations of some problems of viroil carcinogenesis.

Professor L. A. Zilberg, the Soviet scientist, is the founder of virus-genetic origin of cancer. But Zilberg’s hypothesis had a lot of opponents as the study of oncogenic viruses was not developed to a considerable extent. One of their main arguments was the fact that it was impossible to isolate the virus from a cancerous cell. In connection with the development of oncovirology it was established that the presence of the virus was not obligatory in the cell but its trace might be found there. This fact became evident after the discovery of revertase.

This ferment is always present in the viruses causing leukosis in poultry or mice.

Its presence showed a destructive action produced by the virus on the cell genome. In other words the virus affecting the genome of the cell converted it into a cancerous one. And, eventually, the virus might be present in the cell genome in a defective state as a provirus but under certain conditions it could involve the cell mechanism and change the cell into a malignant one.

 

THE SKELETON

The skeleton is composed of a varying number of bones in the different animals, and it varies even among individuals of the same species and breed. These variations are due to age in some cases, the younger animals have certain bones separate that fuse together later; while in the tails of all animals the number of bones is likely to differ according to the varying length of that structure in animals of the same breed and size. The skeleton is divided into: 1) an axial part, consisting of the skull, the vertebral, the ribs with their cartilages, and the sternum or breastbone; and 2) an appendicular portion, consisting of the four limbs. In addition to these divisions, certain parts of the skeleton are embedded in the substance of organs, and are described as the visceral skeleton, e.g. the bones in the tongue, that in the heart of the ox, the snout of the pig, etc.

Skeleton of the Ox. The skull is remarkable from the fact that in the horned breeds the frontal bone carries variously shaped horn cores, and also because upper incisor teeth are absent from the incisive bone. The vertebral column diners from that of the horse in that 1) the bones of the neck are shorter and smaller; 2) the thoracic vertebrae are larger but fewer, there being only 12; 3) the number is the same, i.e. 6; 4) the sacrum possesses the same number of bones, but, they are longer and more completely fused; and 5) the coccygeal vertebrae are longer and better developed and number from16 to 21. The ribs are 13 in number; each is broader, longer, less curved, and less regular than in horse. The first 8 are sternal and the last 5 nonsternal. The sternum is longer in the horse. The fore-limb presents a number of small and comparatively unimportant differences in the scapular and humeral regions. In this part the shaft of the ulna is much more developed. It is still, however, almost completely fused to the shaft of the radius except for two small areas where fusion does not occur. The carpus consists of 6 bones, 4 in the upper row and 2 in the lower.

ВАРИАНТ 4.

 

THE SKIN

The skin covers the surface of the body and consists of two main layers, the surface epithelium or epidermis and the subjacent, connective tissue layer – the corium or derma. Beneath the latter is a loose connective tissue layer, the superficial fascia or hypodermis, which in many places is transformed into subcutaneous fatty tissue. The hypodermis is connected with underlying deep fasciae, aponeuroses or periosteum.

The skin is continuous with several mucous membranes through mucocutaneous junctions, the most important of which are the vermilion border of the lip, the vulva and the anus.

The skin protects the organism from injurious external influences, receives sensory impulses from the outside, excretes various substances and, in warm-blooded animals, helps to regulate the temperature of the body. The skin is provided with hairs, nails, and glands of various kinds.

There is a sharp boundary between the epithelial and the connective tissue portions of the skin, but not between the derma and the hypodermis; here the fibers of one layer pass directly over into the other.

The surface of contact between the epidermis and the derma is uneven in most places. It appears as a straight line only on the forehead, the midline of the perineum and scrotum, and the external ear. In most of the skin of the body the outer portion of the derma is provided with a series of irregular ridges called papillae; into the spaces between them the lower layers of the epidermis intrude.

Epidermis. The epidermis is a stratified squamous epithelium, the external layer of which hornifies. It is moistened by water only with difficulty and prevents the underlying tissues from drying; it thus serves as a protective layer.

Two layers are always present – the stratum Malpighian and the stratum corneum. The granular layer usually consists of but one layer of cells.

 

THE DERMA

The thickness of the derma cannot be measured exactly, because it passes over directly into the subcutaneous layer. The average thickness is approximately 1 to 2 mm; it is less on the eyelids and the prepuce (up to 0.6 mm), but reaches a thickness of 3 mm or more on the soles and palms. On the ventral surface of the body and on the underside of the appendages it is generally thinner than on the dorsal and upper sides.

The surface of the derma fused with the epidermis is usually uneven and covered with projecting ridges and papillae. This surface of the derma is soft and is called the papillary layer. The main dense portion of the derma is called the reticular layer. The two layers cannot be clearly separated.

The reticular layer consists of bundles of collagenous fibers which form a dense feltwork; the bundles run in various directions, but mainly more or less parallel to the surface; less frequently, approximately perpendicular bundles are found. In the papillary layer and its papillae the collagenous bundles are much thinner and more loosely arranged.

The elastic fibers of the derma form abundant, thick networks between the collagenous bundles and are condensed about the hair follicles and the sweat and sebaceous glands. In the papillary layer they are much thinner and form a continuous fine network under the epithelium in the papillae. In the cheeks, however, the elastic network immediately under the epithelium is particularly dense. The cells of the derma are the same as those of the subcutaneous layer and are more abundant in the papillary than in the reticular layer.

Hypodermis. The subcutaneous layer consists of loose connective tissue and is a continuation of the derma. Its collagenous and a few elastic fibers pass directly into those of the derma and run in all directions, mainly parallel to the surface of the skin. Where the skin is flexible, the fibers are few; where it is closely attached to the underlying parts, as on the soles and palms, they are thick and numerous. Depending on the portion of the body and the nutrition of the organism, varying numbers of fat cells develop in the subcutaneous layer.

 

 ВАРИАНТ 5.

ERYTHROCYTES

Mammalian red cells are nonnucleated. In the blood stream they are believed to exist normally as biconcave circular discs. The red corpuscles of most animals below the mammals are elliptical in shape and possess nuclei. When placed in a very weak salt solution, erythrocytes lose their biconcave shape, tending to become spherical; when placed in a strong salt solution, they become shrunken and crenated.

Structure. The state of knowledge of the minute structure of the erythrocyte is still unsettled. Some regard the corpuscle as consisting of a spongelike stroma with hemoglobin deposited in its interstices. Others believe that the corpuscle is of the nature of a vesicle, whose membrane surrounds a mass of contents in a fluid condition. Still others adopt a somewhat intermediate view: the erythrocyte is believed to be a balloon containing an elastic stroma and hemoglobin and surrounded by a lipid-protein condensation which serves as a membrane. Erythrocytes are soft and easily compressible. They can therefore be readily forced through capillaries whose diameter is smaller than that of the erythrocyte. However, this may result in trauma to the red cells.

Composition.—The erythrocyte contains, in different species, 62 to 72 gm of water per 100 ml of cells. The solids of red cells are composed of the pigment hemoglobin and stroma. Hemoglobin makes up much the greater part (about 95 per cent) of the solids. Stroma is composed of proteins; the lipids lecithin; cholesterol, and cephalin; and inorganic substances. Hemoglobin gives the erythrocytes their property

of carrying oxygen and of aiding in carbon dioxide transport and is therefore of great physiological importance.

Hemolysis,—Hemolysis is the discharging of the hemoglobin from the red cells so that it becomes free in the plasma or other medium surrounding the cells. The earlier physiologists termed the process laking, and blood so treated was said to be laked. As indicated below, there are a number of ways of producing hemolysis, but since the exact structure of the erythrocyte is still unknown, the mechanism of hemolysis is imperfectly understood. Some of the methods have clinical significance, while others do not.

 

LEUKOCYTES

  Leukocytes, or white blood cells, are much less numerous than erythrocytes. They are of several kinds and their physiology is incompletely understood. More work has been done on their functions in disease than in health. Numerous (studies of their cytology have been made.

Leukocytes as normally found in the blood are divided into three main groups: lymphocytes, monocytes, and granulocytes. The granulocytes are characterized by specific granules in their cytoplasm and, according to their staining reactions, are classed as neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.

Recent opinion holds that all leukocytes exert their main functions, not in the blood stream, but in the tissues. The blood is a means of transport of leukocytes.

Lymphocytes. These cells are relatively numerous in the blood of most species of domestic animals. They are formed in lymphoid tissue (lymph nodes and nodules, spleen, etc.) and are in fact the main constituent of this tissue. They are believed to produce antibodies and to fix toxins. They are lost in large numbers by migration to the intestinal and respiratory mucous membranes. They are not phagocytic, that is, they do not have the power of ingesting and digesting particulate matter, such as bacteria and tissue detritus, with which they come in contact. They show ameboid motility.

Monocytes. These cells occur in normal blood only to a limited extent. They are large and possess a single nucleus and a fairly abundant, faintly granular cytoplasm. Motility is well developed. Being actively phagocytic, they are able to ingest foreign particles of almost any sort. Their origin is probably from the cells of the reticuloendothelial system.

Granulocytes. Neutrophils are comparatively numerous in the blood of most animals. They have an abundant, finely granular cytoplasm, the granules staining with the so-called neutral dyes. The nucleus of these cells is generally divided into lobes or segments connected by filaments. Such neutrophilic cells are designated as segmented cells.

 

ВАРИАНТ 1.

APPLICATION AND CONTROL OF MOTORS

Milking Machines. The action required to milk a cow is obtained mechanically by a vacuum pump. The size of the pump varies with the size of milking plant: the smallest unit, for milking a herd of 20 cows, has a 3/4 hp motor; the largest vacuum pump for herds up to about 300 cows has a 5 hp motor. For herds of 150 cows it is usual to have more than one vacuum pump.

Starting is invariably by hand switching which may be remote from the motor position. A control switch at the milking point is a definite advantage as the operator can quickly stop the plant in an emergency. All motors must have a suitable starter to give overload and no-volt protection. In smaller sizes, usually up to 2 hp direct on-line starting is permitted.

Milk Pumps. The vacuum in the system is used to convey the milk from the cow to an adjacent receptacle where the milk can be released without breaking the vacuum. In the more complex plants the milk is pumped from the release point to the dairy. A small motor (up to about 2 hp) is used to drive the pump which is directly mounted on the motor shaft. Milk pumps are made from stainless steel and dismantle easily for cleaning. Totally-enclosed motors are used as it is usual for these units to be in damp, or even wet, situations. Starting can be direct on-line but it is important that a suitable starter is used to give protection.

Milk Coolers. Refrigeration is now generally accepted as essential for cooling milk, an operation which must be carried out as soon as possible after the milk has left the cow. The type of cooling varies between (1) surface coolers in which the chilled water passes through the cooler and the milk passes over the exterior surface; (2) in-can cooling with pumped chilled water cascading down the outside of the can and (3) a jacketed bulk tank with an evaporation coil within the jacket.

DAIRY FARM MOTORS

Milk Coolers. Refrigeration is now generally accepted as essential for cooling milk, an operation which must be carried out as soon as possible after the milk has left the cow. The type of cooling varies between (1) surface coolers in which the chilled water passes through the cooler and the milk passes over the exterior surface; (2) in-can cooling with pumped chilled water cascading down the outside of the can and (3) a jacketed bulk tank with an evaporation coil within the jacket.

In each case the size of motor required is directly related to the quantity of milk to be cooled after each milking. Commercial-type compressors are used with standard motors which should be totally enclosed.

Milk Pumps. The vacuum in the system is used to convey the milk from the cow to an adjacent receptacle where the milk can be released without breaking the vacuum. In the more complex plants the milk is pumped from the release point to the dairy. A small motor (up to about 2 hp) is used to drive the pump which is directly mounted on the motor shaft. Milk pumps are made from stainless steel and dismantle easily for cleaning. Totally-enclosed motors are used as it is usual for these units to be in damp, or even wet, situations. Starting can be direct on-line but it is important that a suitable starter is used to give protection.

Milking Machines. The action required to milk a cow is obtained mechanically by a vacuum pump. The size of the pump varies with the size of milking plant: the smallest unit, for milking a herd of 20 cows, has a 3/4 hp motor; the largest vacuum pump for herds up to about 300 cows has a 5 hp motor. For herds of 150 cows it is usual to have more than one vacuum pump.

Motors used are totally enclosed. The vacuum pump with a driving motor is usually housed in a separate room from the milking shed or parlour and from the area used for cooling and storage.

ВАРИАНТ 2.

AUTOMATION IN IRRIGATION METHODS

 In order to form one kilogram of dry matter, wheat draws out of the soil 300-400 litres of water, maize 200-300 litres and cotton 500-600 litres. With a cotton yield of 3,5-4,0 tons per hectare, 5,000-6,000 tons of water have to be delivered to every hectare of the plantation during the vegetation period. In those areas of the USSR where cotton is grown, the summer is dry and all the water necessary for the harvest has to be delivered to the fields over a network of artificial canals and ditches. Many large hydrotechnical developments are fitted with devices for mechanizing and automating the gate controls. The operator has but to press a button on the control panel to make the water flow into the lake-off canal.

The water that comes to the field must get to the roots of every plant. There are as many as 100,000 cotton shrubs, 3-5 million rice and wheat plants on a hectare of land. There are machines operating on the rain principle. Water is elevated to the height of one or two metres and sprinkled over the plot. Such machines are adequate for supplying fields with small quantities of water — 300-400 cubic metres for every watering.

But what about the arid conditions of the south of the Ukraine, the Caucasus and Central Asia, where 6,000-10,000 cubic metres of water have to be delivered to every hectare of crops? In these conditions the use of sprinkling machines does not always pay.

Many scientists and specialists worked hard at the problem of irrigation mechanization. A new system of a combined irrigation network has been developed by Soviet scientists.

What is this system like? The combined gravity-head irrigation network consists of permanent underground delivering and watering pipe-lines and of movable flexible watering hoses. The pipe-lines and hoses are made of polyethylene or similar material. The stationary watering pipe-lines may be made of asbestos cement.

COMBINED IRRIGATION NETWORK

What is this system like? The combined gravity-head irrigation network consists of permanent underground delivering and watering pipe-lines and of movable flexible watering hoses. The pipe-lines and hoses are made of polyethylene or similar material. The stationary watering pipe-lines may be made of asbestos cement.

The underground delivering pipe-lines are laid along the whole length of the plot to be watered. To both sides of the pipe-line, watering pipes and movable watering hoses are provided. On a plot 2,000 metres long and 1,000 metres wide it is sufficient to have two delivering mains spaced 500 metres from each other.

Flexible watering hoses are attached to water hydrants of the delivering pipe-line. The hoses and underground watering pipe-lines are perforated, the holes matching the row width. The furrow method of irrigation is the most suitable one for the combined irrigation network.

Water is fed from the canal directly into the underground delivering pipe-lines via the water take-off facilities. The necessary head is created in the network by taking advantage of the natural slope of the area.

In the elevated part of the plot, where there is no adequate head in the delivering pipe-line yet, watering is carried out with the aid of movable flexible watering hoses placed on the field surface. In the lower part of the plot, it is sufficient to open the gates in the distributing wells to make the water rush into the underground watering pipe-lines. Flowing out of holes in these pipe-lines, the water finds its way through a 25-30 centimetres layer of soil, as little springs it flows into the furrows, moistens the soil around and reaches the roots of the plants.

The ends of the delivering and watering pipe-lines are fitted with special flushing valves which serve to free the pipe-lines of silt. When they are opened, the force of the water stream hurls the silt beyond the network.

ВАРИАНТ 3.

DISK TILLERS

These tools are designed for both tillage and seeding. They consist of a single gang of disk blades, 20 to 26 in. in diameter, on a common axle, all throwing the soil the same way. The common axle differentiates these tools from regular disk plows which have the disk blades tipped back, necessitating separate axles and bearings for each blade.

Disk tillers are made as small as two-blade models cutting 15 in. wide up to models cutting 20 ft wide. They are highly economical of power. Seeding boxes are available for some models, enabling seed-bed preparation and wheat seeding to be done in one operation.

The forces acting on a disk tiller are similar to those acting on a plow except that the resultant lengthwise soil force on the blades is usually upward, requiring extra weight for penetration.

Trail-type disk tillers usually permit the angle of attack of the disk gang to be adjusted from 40 to 55°. In hard high-draft soil, penetration can be improved and width of cut decreased by increasing the angle, while maximum width can be taken with less angle in loose easy-working soils. This adjustment is provided by changing the angle of the land wheel and the furrow wheels with respect to the disk gang.

Hitching principles are similar to those for mold-board plows. The centre of draft is at the centre disk blade slightly below the surface of the ground. Disk tillers are necessarily built heavier than mold-board plows and wheel weights can be added for penetration in hard soil.

 

DRYING AND STORAGE OF GRAIN IN BULK

The combine harvester delivers grain in too damp a condition for prolonged storage. Various methods of drying have been introduced.

A method of drying has been developed which uses storage bins with porous floor through which the drying air is forced. The air is warmed by means of an electric heater. The process of drying the grain is extended over days instead of hours by this method; the size and cost of the drying plant is correspondingly reduced; use is made of the natural drying capacity of the air and efficiency thereby increased. A recent development has been to use cylindrical bins of perforated metal to introduce the air via a perforated duct running down the axis of the cylinder. The power requirement for the fan is thereby reduced to less than half that necessary for floor ventilated bins.

Electric motors and heaters are ideal for use with ventilated bins because they can run for days without attention and there is no risk of fire or grain contamination. Control of the heat can be by hand, by time switch or by humidity sensitive switch.

ВАРИАНТ 4.

ELECTRICITY FOR THE FARMSTEAD

Manpower costs over one hundred times more than electric power and the farmers should therefore use as little as possible of this expensive power to control the largest possible amount of the cheap electric power. They should do the same in the field with tractors and combines.

The tendency now is for farm machinery to be designed for electrical operation with the motors built in as part of the machine.

Electricity gives us power in its most convenient and easily applied form — the electric motor. This is the simplest and most reliable machine in the world — it takes up little space and in many cases is an integral part of the machine it drives. Ease of starting and control are time-saving features and power is provided without fumes, noise or dirt. An electric motor is often cheaper than any other equivalent power unit and will last for many years with very little attention and without the need for spares.

The electric motor is a highly efficient machine since at full load it converts 90 per cent of the electricity it takes into usable mechanical power.

The size of an electric motor is given by its horse-power output at full load. When running at this full load, each horse-power given out will use about 3/4 unit of electricity in one hour. For quick calculation, however, remembering that most farm motors will spend some of their hours running at less than full load, it is simple to say that every horse-power hour will cost the equivalent of one unit of electricity. The question of selecting the right type and size of motor to the conditions is a job for the electrical engineer. However, it is useful for the farmer to know that electric motors come in different housings and most farm operations can best be performed by the enclosed type, which is proof against most of the effect of dirt and weather.

 

DISK PLOWS

 Disk plows have the blades inclined backward for maximum penetration. They are used where the following features are important:

1. Ability to operate where mold-board plows cannot operate efficiently. 2. Ability to roll over stumps, roots, and some rocks without damage. 3. Ability to penetrate hard dry soil.

Blades of 26 in. in diameter are most popular, and they are individually mounted, usually on well-sealed roller bearings which are not exposed to as much dirt as on a disk gang.

The forces involved are similar to those in a disk tiller except that the side force S is proportionately smaller. The width of cut per blade is commonly from 7 to 11 in. compared with 6 to 7 1/2 in. for disk tillers, and maximum depth is 10 to 12 in. compared with 7 in. for most disk tillers.

Proper hitching may be more difficult than with the disk tiller because the narrower cut often results in a line of draft angling to the left, thus adding to the soil side force S.

ВАРИАНТ 5.

DRAINAGE

Getting the water onto the land is only part of the problem that faces the farmer; of almost equal importance is the disposal of water after use. Too much water in the soil can be worse than not enough, while inadequate planning and improper irrigation frequently result in salination and waterlogging. Salination occurs because the roots of the plants absorb the irrigation water but exclude most of the salt it contains. The salt remains in the soil zone upon which the plant depends for growth and eventually renders the soil sterile.

To prevent catastrophic consequences, which are too common in many areas, there must be complete and efficient control of irrigation water. It is difficult to overestimate the harm caused by salination and waterlogging; indeed, reclaiming lands ruined through faulty or misused irrigation is almost as important as bringing new lands under irrigation for the first time.

If reclamation is to be successful, the basic problem is to lower the water-table so that it is kept below the root zone. This may be achieved in a number of ways: a grid of deep ditches may be laid along the boundaries of the fields, or lines of tiles laid in the fields to collect the water and convey it to a collector ditch.

Many areas, particularly in the arid parts of Asia, cannot be conveniently or economically recovered by normal drainage processes. One method of restoration in these circumstances requires the installation of tube wells for pumping the areas to be drained and using the pumped water for further irrigation elsewhere. This method is of growing importance in some countries, but it can be very costly, sometimes proving more expensive than bringing in new irrigated areas. The use of tube wells for this purpose is likely to increase when cheap hydroelectric power becomes available on a larger scale.

RESTORATION AND IRRIGATION METHODS

Many areas, particularly in the arid parts of Asia, cannot be conveniently or economically recovered by normal drainage processes. One method of restoration in these circumstances requires the installation of tube wells for pumping the areas to be drained and using the pumped water for further irrigation elsewhere. This method is of growing importance in some countries, but it can be very costly, sometimes proving more expensive than bringing in new irrigated areas. The use of tube wells for this purpose is likely to increase when cheap hydroelectric power becomes available on a larger scale.

However, it is necessary not only to reclaim areas that have already been spoiled, but also to prevent further ruin. This can only be done by a more efficient use of water, and one way of ensuring this in the future will doubtless be by using automatic control systems. Soviet scientists have recently developed an experimental system at the Kirghizia Automation Institute in Central Asia. There an irrigation canal is parted into separate sections, and in each section a stable water level is maintained automatically. It is held that this system will eliminate disastrous local shortages of water by maintaining stable levels of water in the irrigation canals serving a large area. Such a system is very expensive, but it is claimed, doubtless under favourable conditions, that the capital costs can be regained in less than two years. Ultimately, it is hoped that large canal systems will be controlled by computers, Data on the condition of the irrigated areas, including the humidity of the air and soil, the density of the soil and the nature of the crop, would be fed into a computer, which would then estimate the water requirements for given areas and select optimum water regimes for each section of each canal and for the system as a whole. The first results of recent experiments along these lines suggest that they bring about considerable savings both in the consumption of water and in the cost of irrigation.

 

ВАРИАНТ 1.

Lending the Money

Commercial banks create money – that is, demand deposits, or bank money – when they make loans. The creation of checkable deposits by bank lending is the most important source of money in our economy. Money is destroyed when loans are repaid.

The ability of a single commercial bank to create money by lending depends upon the size of its excess reserves. Generally speaking, a commercial bank can lend only an amount equal to the size of its excess reserves. It is thus limited because, in all likelihood, checks drawn by-borrowers will be deposited in other banks, causing a loss of reserves and deposits to the lending bank equal to the amount which it has loaned.

The commercial banking system as a whole can lend by a multiple of its excess reserves because the banking system cannot lose reserves, although individual banks can lose reserves to other banks in the system. The multiple by which the banking system can lend on the basis of each dollar of excess reserves is the reciprocal of the reserve ratio. This multiple credit expansion process is reversible.

The fact that profit-seeking banks would tend to alter the money supply in a procyclical fashion underlies the need for the Federal Reserve System to control the money supply.

Our overall conclusion is that profit-motivated bankers can be expected to vary the money supply so as to reinforce cyclical fluctuations. It is for this reason that the Federal Reserve System has at its disposal certain policy instruments designed to control ihe money supply in an anticyclical, rather than procyclical, fashion.

 

Granting a loan

In addition to accepting deposits, commercial banks have a basic function of granting loans to borrowers. What effect does commercial bank lending have upon the balance sheet of a commercial bank? Suppose that the Grisley Meat Packing Company of Wahoo decides that the time is ripe to expand its facilities. Suppose, too, that the company needs exactly $50,000 – which, by some coincidence, just happens to be equal to the Wahoo bank’s excess reserves – to finance this project.

The company approaches the Wahoo bank and requests a loan for this amount. The Wahoo bank is acquainted with the Grisley Сompany’s fine reputation and financial soundness and is convinced of its ability to repay the loan. So the loan is granted. The president of the Grisley Сompany hands a promissory note – a high-class IOU – to the Wahoo bank. The Grisley Сompany wants the convenience and safety of paying its obligations by checks. Hence, instead of receiving a bushel basket full of currency from the bank, the Grisley Сompany will get a $50,000 increase in its demand deposit in the Wahoo bank. From the Wahoo bank’s standpoint it has acquired an interest-earning asset (the promissory note) and has created demand deposits (a liability) to «pay» for this asset.

In short, the Grisley company has swapped an IOU for the right to draw an additional 50,000$ worth of checks against its demand deposit in the Wahoo bank. Both parties are pleased with themselves. The Wahoo bank now possesses a new asset – an interest-bearing promissory note which it files under the general heading of «Loans.» The Grisley Сompany, sporting a fattened demand deposit, is now in a position to expand its operations.

 

 

ВАРИАНТ 2.

 The Economic Perspective

The methodology used by economists is common to all of the natural and social sciences. Similarly, all scholars are aware of the reasoning errors which we have just discussed. Hence, economists do not think in a special way. But they do think about things from a special perspective. Economists have developed a keen alertness to certain aspects of everyday conduct and situations. More specifically, they look for rationality or purposefullness in human actions and economic institutions. This purposefulness implies that people, individually and collectively, make choices by comparing costs and benefits. It therefore might be said that the economic perspective is a cost-benefit perspective.

Because people make economic choices from a wide array of alternatives, all choices entail sacrifices or costs. To buy a new VCR may mean not being able to afford a new personal computer. Taking a course in economics may preclude taking a course in accounting, political science, or computer science. A decision by government to provide improved health care for the elderly may mean deteriorating health care for children in poverty.

 Naturally, people are most directly aware of personal monetary costs; that is, expenses incurred when paying tuition, buying hamburgers, hiring babysitters, renting apartments, or attending concerts. But costs occur in all situations in which incomes or resources are scarce relative to wants. Economic actions of workers, producers, and consumers, of course, also produce personal economic benefits. For example, workers receive wages, producers garner profits and consumers obtain satisfaction.

 

The foundation of economics

Two fundamental facts provide a foundation for the field of economics and, in fact, comprise the economizing problem. It is imperative that we carefully state and fully understand these two facts, because everything that follows in our study of economics depends directly or indirectly upon them. The first fact is this: Society’s material wants, that is, the material wants of its citizens and institutions, are virtually unlimited or insatiable. Second: Economic resources – the means of producing goods and services – are limited or scarce.

Let us systematically examine and explain: what do we mean by «material wants»? We mean, first, the desires of consumers to obtain and use various goods and services which provide utility, the economist’s term for pleasure or satisfaction. An amazingly wide range of products fills the bill in this respect: houses, automobiles, toothpaste, compact-disc players, pizzas, sweaters, and the like. In short, innumerable products which we sometimes classify as necessities (food, shelter, clothing) and luxuries (perfumes, yachts, mink coats) are all capable of satisfying human wants. Needless to say, what is a luxury to Smith may be a necessity to Jones, and what is a commonplace necessity today may have been a luxury a few short years ago.

But services satisfy our wants as much as do tangible products. A repair job on our car, the removal of our appendix, a haircut and legal advice have in common with goods the fact that they satisfy human wants. On reflection, we realize that we indeed buy many goods, for example, automobiles and washing machines, for the services they render. The differences between goods and services are often less than they seem to be at first.

 

 

ВАРИАНТ 3.

 Full Employment And Full Production

Society wants to use its scarce resources efficiently; that is, it wants to get the maximum amount of useful goods and services produced with its limited resources. To achieve this it must realize both full employment and full production.

By full employment we mean that all available resources should be employed. No workers should be involuntarily out of work; the economy should provide employment for all who are willing and able to work. Nor should capital equipment or arable land sit idle. Note we say all available resources should be employed. Each society has certain customs and practices which determine what particular resources are available for employment. For example, legislation and custom provide that children and the very aged should not be employed. Similarly, it is desirable for productivity to allow farmland to lie fallow periodically.

By full production we simply mean that resources should be allocated efficiently; that is, employed resources should be utilized so as to make the most valuable contribution to total output. We should avoid allocating astrophysicists to farming and experienced farmers to our space research centers! Nor do we want Iowa’s farmland planted to cotton and Alabama’s to corn when experience indicates that the opposite assignment would provide the nation substantially more of both products from the same amount of land. Full production also implies that the best-available technologies are employed. We don’t want our farmers harvesting wheat with scythes or picking corn by hand. Nor do we want to produce autos with the primitive assembly-line techniques Henry Ford introduced in the 1920s.

Property Resources

Consider now the fundamental fact: Economic resources are limited or scarce. In general, we are referring lo all the natural, human, and manufactured resources that go into the production of goods and services. This clearly covers a lot of ground: factory and farm buildings and all sons of equipment, tools, and machinery used in the production of manufactured goods and agricultural products; a variely of transportation and communication facilities; innumerable types of labor; and. last but not least, land and mineral resources of all kinds. Here we shall talk about the property resources – land or raw materials and capital.

Land refers to all natural resources – all «gifts of nature» – which are usable in the productive process. Such resources as arable land, forests, mineral and oil deposits and water resources come under this general classification.

Capital refers to all manufactured aids to production, that is, all toolds, machinery, storage, transportation, and distribution facilities used in producing goods and services and getting them to the ultimate consumer. The process of producing and accumulating capital goods is known as investment.

Two other points are pertinent. First, capital goods («tools») differ from consumer goods in that the latter satisfy wants directly, whereas the former do so indirectly. Second, the term «capital» as here defined does not refer to money. True, economists often talk of «money capital,» but money, as such, produces nothing: hence, it is not to be considered as an economic resource. Real capital – tools, machinery, and other productive equipment – Is an economic resource: money or financial capital is not.

 

 ВАРИАНТ 4.

 Economic Functions of Government

The economic functions of government are many, and they are varied. In fact, the economic role of government is so broad in scope that it is virtually impossible to establish an all-inclusive list of all economic functions.

First, some of the economic functions of government are designed to strengthen and facilitate the operation of the market system. The two major activities ol government in this area are:

1 Providing the legal foundation and a social environment conducive to the effective operation of the market system.

2 Maintaining competition.

Through a second group of functions, government supplements and modifies the operation ol the market system. There are three major funciit of government here. They involve:

3 Redistributin income and wealth

4 Adjusting the allocation of resources so as to alter the composition of the national output.

5 Stabilizing the economy, that is, controlling unemployment and inflation caused by business fluctuations, and promoting economic growth.

While this fivefold breakdown of government’s functions is a useful way of analyzing its economic role, we shall find that most government activities and policies have some impact in all these areas, for example, a program to redistribute income to the poor affects the allocation of resources to the extent that the poor buy somewhat different goods and services from those that wealthier members of society buy. A decline in, say, government military spending for the purpose of lessening inflationary pressures also tends to reallocate resources from public to private uses.

 

Households as Spenders

How do households dispose of the income that they earn? In general terms, the answer is simple: a part flows to government in the form of personal taxes, and the remainder is divided between personal consumption expenditures and personal saving.

Personal taxes, of which the Federal personal income tax is the major component, have risen sharply in both absolute and relative terms since World War II. In 1941, households paid $3.3 billion, or about 3 percent of their $95.3 billion total income, in personal taxes, as compared to $590 billion, or about 15 percent of that year’s $3963 billion total income in 1988.

PERSONAL SAVING. Economists define saving as «that part of after-tax income which is not consumed»; hence, households have just two choices with their incomes after taxes – to consume or to save.

Why do households want to save? The reasons for saving are many and diverse, but they center around security and speculation. Households save to provide a nest egg for unforeseen contingencies – sickness, accident, unemployment – for retirement from the work force, to finance the education of children, or simply for the overall financial security of one’s family. On the other hand, saving might well occur for speculation. One might channel a part of one’s income to the purchase of securities, speculating as to increases in their monetary value.

The desire or willingness to save, however, is not enough. This willingness must be accompanied by the ability to save. The ability to save depends basically upon the size of one’s income. If the income is very low, households may dissave; that is, they may consume in excess of their after-tax incomes.

 

ВАРИАНТ 5.

 Advantages of the Corporation

The corporation is by far the most effective form of business organization for raising money capital. The corporation features unique methods of finance – the selling of stocks and bonds – which allow the firm to tap the savings of untold thousands of households. Financing by the sale of securities also has decided advantages from the viewpoint of the purchasers of these securities. An individual can spread any risks by buying the securities of a variety of corporations. Finally, it is usually easy for the holder of corporate securities to dispose of these holdings.

 Corporations have the distinct advantage of limited liability. The owners (stockholders) of a corporation risk only what they paid for the stock purchased. Their personal assets are not at stake if the corporation founders on the rocks of bankruptcy. Creditors can sue the corporation as a legal person, but not the owners of the corporation as individuals. Limited liability clearly eases the corporation’s task in acquiring money capital.

  Because of their advantage in attracting money capital, successful corporations find it easier to expand the size and scope of their operations and to realize associated advantages. In particular, corporations may be able to take advantage of mass-production technologies. Similarly, size permits greater specialization in the use of human resources. As a legal entity, the corporation has a life independent of its owners and, for that matter, of its individual officers. In short, corporations have certain permanence, lacking in other forms of business organization, which is conducive to long-range planning and growth.

  

The Underground Economy

Economists agree that there exists a relatively large and perhaps expanding underground or subterranean sector in our economy. Some participants in this sector are engaged in illegal activities such as gambling, loan-sharking, prostitution, and the narcotics trade. These may well be «growth industries.» For obvious reasons, persons receiving income from such illegal businesses choose to conceal their incomes. Most of the participants in the underground economy are in legal activities, but do not fully report their incomes to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). A waiter or waitress may underreport tips from customers. A businessperson may record only a portion of sales receipts for the tax collector. A worker who wants to retain unemployment compensation or welfare benefits may obtain a «cash only» job so there is no record of his or her work activities. To the extent that inflation and high tax burdens squeeze real disposable incomes, the incentive to receive income in forms (for example, cash and barter) which can not be readily discovered by the IRS is strenthened. Although there is no consensus as to the size of the underground economy, most estimates suggest that it constitutes as much as 5 to 15 percent of the recorded GNP.

If the existence of the underground economy distorts such basic economic indicators as GNP and the unemployment rate, policies based upon these indicators may be inappropriate and harmful. Thus an understated GNP and an overstated unemployment rate might prompt policy makers to stimulate the economy. But the stimulus may cause unwanted inflation rather than increases in real output and employment.